In over two thousand years, there have been many characters that have played a part in the scientific research of our universe. One of many was a man named Aristotle, who was one of the first astronomers to believe that the earth was actually a sphere, instead of the uneducated theory of the earth being flat. One man, named Tycho Brahe helped to prove retrograde motion by building one of the most accurate, astronomical observatories of his time. While these men helped to intensify and enhance scientific knowledge of the Universe, there were two, who were more emphasized in the history of astronomical science. One of the two was named Nikolai Kapernick, later known as Copernicus, and a much earlier astronomer named Claudius Ptolemy. In order to understand Copernicus and Ptolemy’s importance to the astronomical world, one must consider their history, theories, and scientific contributions.
Ptolemy was one of the most influential Greek astronomers and geographers of his time. Ptolemy propounded the geocentric theory in a form that prevailed for 1400 years. However, of all the ancient Greek mathematicians, it is fair to say that his work was generated more for discussion and argument than any other.
Much of Ptolemy’s life is unknown, but there are a few facts about him that are recorded. Ptolemy made astronomical observations from Alexandria in Egypt during the years 127 B.C to 141 B.C. His astronomical work, called the almagest, was based upon the theories of Hipparchus. It was unchallenged throughout the Middle Ages. The almagest is the earliest of Ptolemy’s works and gives in detail the mathematical theory of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets.
Ptolemy first of all justifies his description of the universe based on the earth-centered system described by Aristotle. It is a view of the world based on a fixed sphere, in which stars, the sun, moon, and planets all rotate around the sphere called earth. He extended Hipparchus’s system of epicycles and eccentric circles to explain his geocentric theory of the solar system. He used at least 80 epicycles to explain the motions of sun, moon, and the five planets known in his time. This system came to be called the Ptolemaic System and was the center of astronomical beliefs for nearly a millennium and a half. It predicted the positions of the planets accurately enough for naked-eye observations.
The Ptolemaic System was the accepted wisdom until the Polish scholar Copernicus proposed a heliocentric view in 1543. In fairness, Ptolemy’s system is actually more accurate than Copernicus’s. The heliocentric calculations for the movement of planets does not improve on Ptolemy’s until Kepler’s Laws were added. Some people also doubt that Ptolemy truly believe in his own system, rather he merely used it as a method of calculating positions.
Almost 1500 years after the death of Ptolemy, there came a Polish scholar named Copernicus. The Copernican revolution was part of the intellectual revolution that took place during the Renaissance. It was part of a revolution, which altered both man’s view of the universe, and his view of himself. Nicholas Copernicus found that the motions of the planets, sun, moon, and stars could be more simply explained by using a heliocentric model. According to this model, the sun was at the center of the solar system, and the planets, the stars, and Earth, rotated around it. The Earth was no longer a stationary body, but a body in motion.
Copernicus was born in Poland in 1473 A.D and was eventually sent off to Krakow University to study mathematics and optics. Returning from his studies in Italy, Copernicus, through the influence of his uncle, was appointed as a canon in the cathedral of Frauenburg where he spent a sheltered and academic life for the rest of his days. Because of his clerical position, Copernicus moved in the highest circles of power; but a student he remained. For relaxation Copernicus painted and translated Greek poetry into Latin. His interest in astronomy gradually grew to be one in which he had a primary interest. His investigations were carried on quietly and alone, without help or consultation. He made his celestial observations from a turret situated on the protective wall around the cathedral, observations were made with the naked eye, as a hundred more years were still to pass before the invention of the telescope.
In 1530, Copernicus completed and gave to the world his great work De Revolutionibus, which asserted that the earth rotated on its axis once daily and traveled around the sun once yearly. Up to the time of Copernicus the thinkers of the western world believed in the Ptolemaic theory that the universe was closed space bounded by a spherical envelope beyond which there was nothing. It is noted that one of the Ancient Greek astronomers, Aristarchus, did have ideas similar to those more fully developed by Copernicus, but they were rejected in favor of the geocentric or earth-centered scheme as was originally presented by Aristotle.
Copernicus was in no hurry to publish his theory, though parts of his work were circulated among a few of the astronomers that were giving the matter some thought. Indeed Copernicus’ work might not have ever reached the printing press if it had not been for a young man who sought out the master in 1539. George Rheticus was a 25-year-old German mathematics professor who was attracted to the 66-year-old cleric, having read one of his papers. Intending to spend a few weeks with Copernicus, Rheticus ended up staying as a houseguest for two years, so fascinated was he with Copernicus and his theories. Now up to this time, Copernicus was reluctant to publish, not so much that he was concerned with what the church might say about his novel, but rather because he was a perfectionist. He never thought, even after working on it for thirty years, that his complete work was ready. There were, as far as Copernicus was concerned, observations to be checked and rechecked.
Copernicus died in 1543 and was never to know what a stir his work had caused. It went against the philosophical and religious beliefs that had been held during the medieval times. Man, believed to be made by God in His image, people believed that man was the next thing to God, and, as such, superior, especially in his best part, his soul, to all creatures. Copernicus’ theories might well lead men to think that they are simply part of nature and not superior to it.
Two Italian scientists of the time, Galileo and Bruno, embraced the Copernican theory unreservedly and as a result suffered much personal injury at the hands of the powerful church inquisitors. Giordano Bruno had the audacity to even go beyond Copernicus, and dared to suggest, that space was boundless and that the sun and the planets were but one of many solar systems. For such Blasphemy, Bruno was tried before the Inquisition, condemned and burned at the stake in 1600. Galileo was brought forward in 1633 and there, in front of his “betters” he was under the threat of torture and death. He was forced to his knees to renounce all belief in Copernican theories, and was thereafter sentenced to imprisonment for the remainder of his days.
Brilliant minds have been remembered and forgotten countless times and some even relinquished. The works of these two great men have forever changed the place of man in the cosmos. The knowledge of society, is greater now, than if would be, had these men not expressed their intelligence to the world. In the past, change was not normal, it was frowned upon, but now, in the world today, theories are expressed with out fear of discrimination. We owe our knowledge of astronomical science, geography, and mathematics to these men, and that we will someday discover the secrets, that lie in the deep reaches of space.

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